RedPen Writing Craft Topics: Subtext

Subtext …  a noun, defined as a MEANING

that is not expressly stated but can be inferred

Its synonyms: implication, import, significance.

Some more definitions (thanks Google!)

• Unspoken or implied MEANING behind the words that are actually said or written
• What the speaker really means, even though he’s not saying it directly
• The unspoken MEANING of a character’s words and actions in a story
• Part of communication that’s “sub” or “under” the literal wording
• The MEANING beneath the dialogue

This is the ‘posh’ definition: a rhetorical device that conveys deeper MEANING through indirect, intentional language.

What’s the purpose of subtext?

• To reveal information about the story or characters without stating it outright
• To foreshadow what’s to come
• For character development
  (Subtext often tells readers more about a character than the actual text, revealing motivations for a character’s words or actions.)

How to spot subtext

• Contradictions between what people say and what they do
• Contradictions between what people say and what they actually mean

What use is subtext to a writer?

As a rhetorical device, writers can use subtext in various forms to highlight those contradictions between what is said and what is meant. It’s then called irony and involves a contrast between expectation and reality. Its purpose is to create a sense of surprise, humor, or deeper meaning.

There are three main types of irony, with lots of alternatives for verbal irony.

1. Situational irony
   • Cosmic irony
   • Poetic irony
   • Structural irony
   • Historical irony
2. Verbal irony
   • Sarcasm
   • Ironic similes
   • Understatements
   • Overstatements
   • Socratic irony
3. Dramatic irony

1: Situational irony

With situational irony, the outcome or intended meaning of a situation is drastically different than what would be expected to happen or considered normal. This incongruity between what is expected to happen and what actually occurs can provoke strong emotional reactions, such as shock, amusement, or sympathy, which helps the audience to connect with the characters and the story on a deeper level.

• Cosmic irony involves an intervention by some higher authority (eg God, the Universe).
• Poetic irony (or poetic justice) is closely related to cosmic irony in that there’s a sense that the ‘karma’ is brought about by some outside intervention – but the important distinguishing feature is this sense of justice.
• Structural irony occurs in stories where a character (for whatever reason – naivety, ignorance, misguided perspective) believes one thing and that thing can’t be further from the truth. The audience can see it; the character can’t. A story that features a ‘fish out of water’ trying to achieve something (something that seems unachievable) can learn /grow along the way.
• Historical irony comes into play when hindsight (knowledge of what happened in the past) is used to see how a current situation is bound to end in disaster.

Example: Animal Farm by George Orwell is the story of a team of farm animals who overthrow their human owner and create a society where all animals are equal. However, the situational irony lies in the fact that the pigs, who lead the revolution and promise equality, eventually become corrupt and oppressive rulers, mirroring the humans they overthrew.

2: Verbal irony

Verbal irony is found in dialogue …

Sarcasm conveys mockery or disdain by saying the opposite of what one means.

• Sarcastic comments often criticize situations or express frustration. Understanding sarcasm requires correctly interpreting tone and context. While all sarcasm is verbal irony, not all verbal irony is sarcastic, as sarcasm involves a mocking or harsh tone.
• Sardonic comments are similar but typically even darker or more disdainful. Delivery and context are typically used to signal that the intent differs from the literal words. The result can be humorous, scathingly critical, or somewhere in between.

Ironic similes compare two things in an unconventional way, often highlighting unexpected similarities or emphasizing contrasts to create humor or underscore absurdity. For example: ‘as clear as mud’.

Understatements do not fully express the extent to which something is true. There are several examples in Winnie-the-Pooh.

• Winnie the Pooh’s line, “I am a bear of very little brain” is an understatement but also an expression of humility. Meanwhile, Piglet calls Pooh a bear of very little brain – another understatement – because Pooh is not a thinker in any way at all.
• Eeyore is said to be gloomy sometimes. This is an understatement because he is always down in the dumps.
• Owl says it is a blustery day but this is a considerable understatement as it is windy enough to blow his house down.

A litote is a form of understatement in which the use of double negatives conveys something positive. For example: ‘Now Pooh was not the sort to give up easily. When he put his mind to honey, he stuck to it.’

Overstatements, also known as hyperbole or auxesis, exaggerate aspects of a situation to an absurd degree to highlight the disparity between the actual circumstances and the described scenario, often to humorous or critical effect, by making the contrast starkly evident. The intention might be to describe or explain something in a way that makes it seem more important or more serious than it really is. For example, a character might claim to be hungry enough to eat a horse, or so angry he/she will literally explode.

Socratic irony involves feigning ignorance to provoke critical thinking in others. One character might ask a question (the answer to which they already know) so as to entice another character into making statements that can then be challenged and/or will result in clarification of the situation. For example, a detective character (think Columbo) might ‘play dumb’ to catch the suspect in a lie or to confess to something they wouldn’t otherwise concede. In this verbal chess match, the suspect is given a false sense of security that lures them into a trap.

3: Dramatic irony

This plot device involves revealing information to the audience that some or all of the characters do not know. The result can be humor, suspense, or emotional impact.

• In tragedy, dramatic irony becomes ‘tragic irony’, serving to heighten emotions such as fear, sympathy, or a sense of impending doom.
• In comedy, dramatic irony often involves humorous misunderstandings. For example: in Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night, the audience knows that Viola, disguised as a man, land calling herself Cesario, becomes a messenger for Duke Orsino and falls in love with him. Meanwhile, Lady Olivia falls in love with Cesario, unaware that he/she is actually Viola. Shakespeare presents humorous situations and romantic confusions as various characters interact, oblivious of Viola’s true identity.